Saber Azam [*]
Geopolitics of Afghanistan
Part I
Introduction:
Afghanistan has been a significant limelight of regional and international politics for centuries to the extent that some experts consider it still the “graveyard of empires.” Indeed, the current territory of this country had been invaded by many mighty powers, yet at the same time, it gave birth to its realms that conquered others in the region. Defeat of any major regional or world player in this land has always ended, sooner or later, to the rout of its glory and might. The geography, history, cultures, languages spoken, religions practiced, and many other aspects of its people’s way of life are highly complex realities that make Afghanistan an envied and feared territory. There is no doubt about its strategic and geopolitical importance in the fight for gain and fame between the East and the West.
Ancientgiants confronted each other ferociously on this land. However, the antagonism of the world's more recent powers took a particular form from the 18th century onwards. They clashed on this territory for the conquest of West Asia. Such contentions are still ongoing with different actors. Understanding the dynamics of quicksand-like politics and conflicts in this country is quite demanding.
Many experts are undoubtedly aware of the substance of this article. However, there is a firm belief that practically all foreign interventions in Afghanistan lacked careful psychological and sociological studies of the peoples of the country, their diversity, histories, cultural intricacies, and attachment to their ancestral values. The Greeks, British, Soviets, and Americans committed the same mistake that military might and money can change the realities on the ground to their advantage. In effect, this was not the case! Furthermore, it is a fact that foreigners are authors and owners of the overwhelming majority of articles written, studies undertaken, and views expressed. An Afghan perspective would bring a fresh and perhaps more realistic vision.
Geography, Quick Overview of Past History, and Ethnic Composition:
Afghanistan is an over 652,000 square kilometers land-locked country in the heart of West Asia, surrounded on its east and south by the People's Republic of China and Pakistan, on its west by the Islamic Republic of Iran, and its north by Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. Like Switzerland, it is also the cradle of the region's highest mountains, which cover about 80% of the land. The Hindu Kush range, an extension of the Himalayan Mountains, with Mount Noshaq at 7,492 meters, divides this country into half from northeast to southwest. The lower segment of the Hindu Kush, the Suleiman Mountains, forms the eastern and part of the southern boundaries between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Peaks of over 6,000 meters in Wakhan, bordering the People's Republic of China and over 5,000 meters elsewhere, deep and impenetrable valleys on each side of the mountains, and plains of southwest, ranging from 700 to over 1,000 meters high with extremely moody climate compose the landscape of Afghanistan. The freezing weather in the northeast mountains, the torching heat in the southwest deserts, and the clement temperatures in lower vales characterize the same season ambiance in Afghanistan. The 2,400 kilometers long Amu Darya - Oxus River - forms the border with Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and part of Turkmenistan before vanishing at the Aral area. Helmand River emanates from the central Hindu Kush and runs for nearly 1,200 kilometers to irrigate the planes of Kandahar and Helmand. It finally ends its course in the Helmand Lake between Afghanistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran. Many other rivers, such as Morghab, Kunar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Harirod, originate from the northern or southern flanks of the Hindu Kush to reach different neighboring countries. Therefore, Afghanistan is one of the leading water providers in the region, and as such, it maintains a crucial strategic advantage. This country also links Central and West Asia through diverse passes over the Hindu Kush and the Salang Tunnel.
Afghanistan possesses extraordinarily unearthed raw materials that are unevenly spread in the country. Its treasures include Barite, chromite, copper, gold, iron ore, lead, sulfur, lithium, zinc, uranium, talc, marble, salt, coal, natural gas, and petroleum. In addition, the precious and semi-precious stones inside its mountains, particularly emerald, ruby, kunzite, garnet, tourmaline, aquamarine, beryl, and lapis lazuli, are of the highest quality. Therefore, its wealth makes the country a strategic target of powers searching for natural resources and gemstones. This country is also a crucial crossroad of east-west and north-south commerce. To reach China, Marco Polo and his uncle crossed the highlands of Hindu Kush to assert the utility of the Silk Road that bifurcated through Balkh southward to India and westward to Europe. Lastly, Afghanistan has a highly talented young generation who has flourished in academic, scientific, and artistic arenas outside their country.
The history of Afghanistan and the derived ethnic composition in this country is very ancient, composite, and intricate. Existing records demonstrate that Ariana, the initial name of this land, was inhabited over 4,000 years ago and resisted invasions by eastern tribes scurrying from China or southern forces rushing from India or western might coming from Persia. It was ruled by the Persian Achaemenid Empire from 550 to 330 BC. Alexander the Great and his massive army invaded it in 330 BC and remained engaged for over five years in unending combats they never won. The Macedon icon ended his ambition of conquering India and withdrew to Babylon, where he died in 323 BC. Subsequently, the Greco-Bactrian realm, established by the descendants of Greek settlers and soldiers intermarried with local populations, was established between 256 and 100 BC. During the same period, the Indian Maurya Empire conquered the southern parts of the Hindu Kush Mountains between 322 and 185 BC. Parts and parcels of Ariana were invaded by several other powers, such as the Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian kingdoms, established by the nomadic people of Central Asian origin, the Yuezhi Kushan Empire, emanating from China, and the Xiongnu Kidarite Red Huns and the Hephthalite White Huns kingdoms of north Central Asia steps. Finally, the Persian Sassanian Empire took over again the administration of pre-Islam Ariana from 275 to 650 AD.
The apex of the middle age history of Ariana was the conquest of Islam between the 7th and 10th centuries and the division between Arab and non-Arab disciples of this religion. The entire Muslim world was then ruled by the Abbasid caliphate of Baghdad, including the oriental part of the vanished Sassanian Empire called Khorasan or Chorasan, which encompassed eastern areas of Iran, Afghanistan, and parts of Central Asia. Abu Muslim of Khorasan, born in Balkh in the current Afghanistan, was a famous general of Al-Mansur Abbasid. When tasked to capture an essential city in Khorasan, Merve, located presently in Turkmenistan, he declared independence from Baghdad. Though Al-Mansur viciously killed him, his legacy remained, and the non-Arab Muslims of Khorasan began having their spheres of influence in the regional geography, politics, and economy. Subsequently, the Samanid (819 to 999 AD), the Ghaznavid (977 – 1186 AD), and the Ghurid (1170 – 1215 AC) Empires emerged. They conquered India, moved towards China's western provinces, and dominated Central Asia's northern steps. The immense outcome of their triumph was the propagation of Islam in areas under their domination. Khorasan became part of the Turkic Seljukid and Khwarazmi Empires before being brutally invaded by Genghis Khan between 1219 and 1221 AD. The Timurid (1370 – 1507 AD) of Central Asian origin regained the independence of this territory and ruled from their capitals, Samarkand and Herat, to glorify sciences, art, and culture. Their cousins, the Moghuls, took over to rule southern parts of Khorasan and India between 1526 and 1857 AD. They built several marvels among the world's or region's heritages, such as the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, and many more.
Meanwhile, diverse Iranian kingdoms, notably the Safavid Empire (1501 – 1722), partially restored the prestige and glory of the ancient Persian Empires. It is essential to note that the take-over of Khorasan by Pashtun kings of Hotak and Durrani decencies in late modern history coincided with the effective arrival of the British Empire to the Indian sub-continent through the East India Company. Many still believe that the Pashtun kings assisted the British to a great extent, consciously or otherwise. For example, Mahmud Hotak attacked the Persian Safavids in 1722 AD and sieged their capital, Isfahan. Despite the surrender of Sultan Hossain Safavid, the Hotak king continued his assault, as a result of which between 80,000 and 100,000 individuals lost their lives on the battlefield or of hangar and thirst. Ahmad Shah Durrani attacked thirty times India, with eight consequent bloody invasions of the subcontinent, between 1747 and 1773. Instead of repulsing the British, the Indian Maharajas and Sultans were more concerned about the wild incursions of the Durrani kings and their undisciplined fighters. The British effectively used the Pashtun or Pathan threats and their traditional policy of divide and rule to conquer India entirely by the late modern period. At the same time, the Russian Empire had advanced significantly in the Caucasus and Central Asia regions. The strategic objective of the Russians consisted of reaching the Indian Ocean through the land of Khorasan. Henceforth, they had gained the northern sides of the Amu Darya. The British opposed the Russian ambition by all means and at all costs. This was the beginning of the First Great Game in West Asia. Subsequently, the territory governed by the Durrani kings was used as buffer geography. Each side endeavored to have their favors through political influence, bribery, and military incursions in the case of the British. The Durrani kings skillfully enriched themselves and their family members, proved their usefulness to both sides and remained in power. In 1855, the British named the Durrani territory Afghanistan, the land of Afghans.
Such a tumultuous and rich history and the indispensable geography as a significant crossroad resulted in the cohabitation of multiple ethnic groups, faiths, languages, and cultures. Tajiks, Pashtuns, Hazaras, Uzbeks, Turkmen, Baloch, Aimaq, Nouristani, Pashai, and numerous other minorities are owners of this land, each speaking their distinct language and preserving their rich cultural heritage. Though Islam is the current religion of the entire country, the Cheshm-e-Shafa and the celebration of Nowruz, the solar calendar's first day, demonstrate this country's Zoroastrian past. In addition, the famous Buddha of Bamiyan, the 150 Jewish manuscripts in the "Afghan Geniza" in central Afghanistan, and the Sajawand, Asamai, and Bhairo Hindu temples demonstrate its rich ancestral cultures. Sunni, Shia, and Ismaili Muslims, as well as Hindu and Sikh communities, lived together in the cities, valleys, and plains of this country. Due to decades of ongoing conflicts, it is hard to precisely determine Afghanistan's population, demography, cultural wealth, and economic diversity, as no census has been performed since 1979.
The East-West Rivalryin Modern Period - The First Great Game in West Asia:
As was pointed out earlier, control over the current territory of Afghanistan constituted the cornerstone of the Russian and British Empires' competition in West Asia, known as the First Great Game. The two superpowers used this country as a shield zone, where they engaged in proxy wars for intelligence, influence, and political or strategic gains. Russian policy seemed more subtle as they avoided intervening directly in the internal affairs of their southern neighbor. They aimed to persuade the rulers to favor their policies and ambitions. However, the British applied a policy of carrot and stick. Their mastery of brain games seemed more efficient than the Russians.
On the one hand, the British enjoyed the Durrani kings' repeated attacks and invasions of India and the subsequent plundering and massacres, significantly weakening India's multiple rulers; on the other hand, London did not want them to become strong enough and pose a threat to its power. Furthermore, they expertly created division among the Indian potentates but also within the ranks of Durrani pretenders of the throne. Most believed that the European superpower would protect them against their foes. It is worth noting that the British ploy in Afghanistan touched governing families' core circles, inciting a ruler against his children, brothers, or cousins. For example, Mahmud Shah Durrani blinded his brother, Zaman Shah Durrani, to "protect his throne." He also ordered the mutilation and killing of his cousin and vizier, Fateh Khan. Multiple accounts of such brutalities within different courts have been recorded.
Despite undeniable success in exploiting the division among Durrani branches and personalities and inducing their kings not to sway to the Russian sphere of influence, the British did not have an easy task with a highly independent tribal population and exceedingly demanding rulers. It culminated in the first Anglo-Afghan war between 1839 and 1842. Serious disagreement emerged between King Dost Mohammad Khan of the Durrani Mohammadzai clan and the Governor-General of India, Lord Auckland, particularly on the importance granted to the viewpoints of the Russian Empire, the arrival to Kabul of a delegation from Saint Petersburg, and the fear that Persia would join hands with Dost Mohammad Khan and attack India. Auckland declared his support to Shuja Shah of the Durrani Sadozai clan, the king's cousin and the former ruler. In December 1838, he dispatched the "Army of the Indus," which included 21,000 soldiers, to support his claims. Dost Mohammad Khan was defeated and sought protection from the Russian Empire in Bukhara, currently in Uzbekistan.
However, the presence of foreign troops in Kabul and senior British officers' "immoral behavior" exacerbated the population's patience and sentiments. Among others was Alexander Burnes, chief intelligence officer, who also assumed the function of advisor to the king. He was caught red-handed with young girls. Itwas a straw that broke the camel's back. Beaten, he was hacked to death by a mob. The event took place just next to the casern of the British troops. At the time, the valiant son of Dost Mohammad Khan, Akbar Khan, who had victoriously returned from Peshawar, orchestrated the resistance against the invaders and Shuja Shah. William Macnaghten, the chief advisor of the East India Company troops, wasted no effort to assassinate him. He miserably failed. In an attempt to accomplish his plan personally in a meeting, Akbar Khan was faster and shot him on 3 December 1841. Subsequently, the entire British contingent came under attack. The tribesmen did not spare the retreating Auckland Army and their family members; only their surgeon was allowed to "return to India and report." The rest were annihilated. It was a colossal defeat for the British and an enormous offense to their prestige and Queen. Shuja Shah tried to flee to India. However, he was captured near the Bala Hissar castle in April 1842 and killed. Dost Mohammad Khan returned to Kabul and regained his throne. The new British Governor-General of India, Lord Ellenborough, multiplied "kind offers" to the king to "strengthen his power." In 1847, Akbar Khan, the mighty son of Dost Mohammad Khan, perished in an apparent cholera outbreak. However, the plausibility of his poisoning by the court under the British instigation has always been underlined.
Meanwhile, Queen Victoria had opted for direct management of India by the Crown and the dismantlement of the East India Company, which came into effect in 1858. This also implied an outright intervention in Afghanistan's internal affairs. If the king or any senior court member did not comply with London's views, he faced an uncertain destiny and was immediately replaced by a son, brother, or cousin. Concurrently, the idea of a revenge attack on Afghanistan had emerged in the minds of British political and military strategists to "reinstate the British pride." Therefore, Lord Lytton, the Viceroy in India known as a man to reverse characters, received the order in November 1878 to march on Afghanistan with 50,000 fighting men. King Sher Ali Khan, son of Dost Mohammad Khan, was defeated. He went to the northern parts of the country to seek Russian assistance. The Afghan side lost their final battle in Maiwand, near Kandahar, in September 1880. Fearing a repeat of the First Anglo-Afghan War, the British troops quickly withdrew from Afghanistan in March 1881, designating Sher Ali Khan's son as the new king of the country. Several years later, and conscious of a possible Afghan reprisal, the British opted to create their safeguard zone within Afghanistan that already constituted a buffer state between them and the Russians. In November 1893, they signed the Durand Treaty with Abdur Rahman Khan, according to which the Durrani king ceded its territory's eastern and southern zones to the British Empire. It included Kashmir and parts of the current Pakistan, north of the Indus River. Article 2 of the agreement stipulated that "the Government of India will at no time exercise interference in the territories lying beyond this line on the side of Afghanistan, and His Highness the Amir [king] will at no time exercise interference in the territories lying beyond this line on the side of India." Hence, the British created an additional protection area between them and the Russian Empire. It is also worth noting that many Pashtun leaders consider the Durand Line a temporary measure with a spirit similar to the Convention between the United Kingdom and China that was signed in June 1898 on the lease for 99 years of Hong Kong by Qing China to the British Empire. This has been a source of great anxiety for the leaders of Pakistan since the creation of this country.
The Third Anglo-Afghan War that led to the total independence of Afghanistan and the beginning of the fall of the British Empire occurred in 1919. The young King Amanullah Khan did not follow the path of his ancestors. Surrounded by many intellectuals, politicians, and military chieftains who aspired to a free country, he mustered 50,000 men and declared war on the British. It was unheard of for a small country to declare hostility on the mighty empire. With the return of Mahatma Gandhi from South Africa to India and his "peaceful war" against the occupation of his country, the British had reached the limits of their controlling and ruling capacity. Gandhi had started the civic resistance in Champaran in the State of Bihar. Millions had been galvanized in India, claiming the departure of the invaders, who seemed powerless. The Afghan king and his close advisors were mindful of the challenges and opportunities. Mahmud Tarzi, his father-in-law, was a fine politician; Haider Khan Charkhi and his sons, particularly Nabi Charkhi and Nader Khan, were smart military officers. Amanullah Khan finally attacked in May 1919 along the Durand Line. The fight did not last long, and casualties seemed minimal, though the British had lost twice as many soldiers. The war ended with an armistice on 8 August 1919, and the subsequent Anglo-Afghan Treaty resulted in the Afghans gaining complete control of their country.
The new king opted for accelerated modernization of his country. Education, women's emancipation, independent foreign policy, administrative and political reforms, economic invigoration, cultural innovation, and many other aspects of his policies seemed ahead of time in a highly orthodox country. Puffed up by the emergence of Kemal Ataturk in Turkey, with whom he had close ties, the king ignored the necessity to proceed slowly but steadily. Despite growing unhappiness, Amanullah Khan embarked on a lengthy trip abroad at the end of 1927. He toured British India, Egypt, Italy, Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, Poland, and the Soviet Union, the heir of the Russian Empire. Western capitals badly received the last leg of his visit. London was alarmed and decided to bring him down, similar to the revenge of the First Anglo-Afghan War. Nothing seemed more efficient than attacking him on his women's emancipation endeavors. Propagation of the Queen's "indecent" pictures in European dress fired up the conservative society. Several religious leaders, who had been brought earlier to Afghanistan from the Middle East, declared that the king had turned "infidel" and organized an uprising in the eastern parts of the country. Amanullah Khan was forced into exile. Nabi Charkhi, who served as his Ambassador to the Soviet Union, tried to muster a resistance and bring him back to power. He failed and was brutally murdered together with his brother about a year later by Nader Khan, who had grabbed power with the assistance of the British.
Following the independence of Afghanistan, London engaged in at least sixteen wars and battles in the region that diminished significantly its might. According to the Government of India census and data, up to 165 million people were killed during the British occupation of this country. The end of World War II and the independence of India resulted in the extension of the Great Game in the region of West Asia with different actors.
The East-West Rivalry in Modern Period - The Second Great Game in West Asia:
Following World War II and the demise of the British Empire, the United States took over the torch to defend Western interests in the region and faced the mighty Soviet Union. The first ugly phase of the Second Great Game in West Asia began with the partition of India and the creation of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan in 1947. Up to 18 million people, Hindus and Muslims, were forced to relocate from their homes in the north or south to go in the opposite directions. Approximately one million people died as a result of communal violence. The West stood behind the newly established state of Pakistan, while the Soviet Union backed India. It is essential to underscore that despite its independence, Pakistan was de facto ruled by London for nine years. Governing structures, particularly administrative, military, and intelligence setups, were tailored and established during this period. Afghanistan was in a peculiar situation. Even though neither King Amanullah Khan nor his successors had explicitly put the Durand Line into question, Pakistan never felt comfortable. It dragged its Western protectors into the embracement of its fear. Subsequently, despite Afghanistan declaring its neutral status to remain outside the Second Great Game in the region, Western support was merely for small-scale development aid. Matters became complicated when Daoud Khan, Prime Minister of Afghanistan and cousin of King Zaher Shah, a staunch supporter of the reunification of Pashtuns on both sides of the Durand Line, visited the United States of America in 1958. His request to receive American military equipment was unwisely rejected. In addition, Afghanistan was not welcomed in the West-led military pacts of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), while Pakistan acquired full membership. The worry that an Afghan administration would claim restitution of its territory ceded to the British through the Durand Line Agreement with American military supplies was growing in Pakistan and Western spheres. The Afghan Prime Minister had no choice but to welcome the Soviet Union's offer to ensure the safety and security of his country. Soviet-made tanks, guns, airplanes, and other military supplies poured into Afghanistan accompanied by hundreds of advisors. Countless Afghans received scholarships to study in diverse civil and military institutions in the Soviet Union.
King Zaher Shah tried hard to redirect his country to its path of neutrality. Under Western pressure, he dismissed Daoud Khan in 1963 to embark on a parliamentarian democracy process that alarmed Moscow. He expected political, financial, and military support from Western countries, chiefly the United States of America. His expectations were quickly overshadowed by the unbending and explicit support of the West to Pakistan. Nevertheless, a functioning democracy with all its odds in a developing country became a reality and a source of serious concern for the Soviet Union. Afghanistan and its king were in between the rock and the hard stone. Numerous political parties emerged. Among them, Khalq (people), a pro-Soviet communist entity led mainly by Pashtun leaders; Parcham (flag), a pro-Soviet communist organization run by mainly non-Pashtun chieftains; Shola-e-Jawed (Eternal Flame), a Maoist communist group, and Islamic Brotherhood of extreme Islamic obedience, supported by Pakistan, organized regular demonstrations to disrupt the functioning of the government. The first such effort consisted of sieging the parliament in 1965. It ended in a bloodbath, providing an opportunity for communist parties to gain more popularity and momentum. The attack by the Muslim Brotherhood on leftist students at the University of Kabul that resulted in many deaths constituted another alarming signal that Afghanistan faced an uncertain future.
Finally, the Soviet Union of Leonid Brezhnev strongly encouraged Daoud Khan to regain power. He successfully orchestrated, in July 1973, a coup with the help of Soviet-trained officers, kicked out his cousin, King Zaher Shah, and declared a republican regime. Pakistan feared the repercussions of Daoud Khan's perception of the reunification of Pashtuns and a strong alliance with India. For many, Daoud Khan's return to power represented the beginning of the current abyss in Afghanistan and the intensification of the Second Great Game between the Soviet Union and the United States of America in West Asia.
Conclusion:
Ariana, Khorasan, or Afghanistan existed for over 4,000 years, with a highly complex history and diverse geography. It has been the crossroads of cultures, religions, trade, and conquests. This land has been occupied by mighty powers, which subsequently lost their glory and, at the same time, produced its emperors who conquered others. Its history has been bloody and multifaceted. Its geopolitical and strategic importance in regional and international affairs is undeniable. The country's current situation has deeply rooted historical, political, and cultural aspects that many ancient and contemporary conquerors did not grasp. Due to its location in the heart of the Asian continent, Afghanistan will remain a key element in the struggle of world powers to assert their supremacy in the future.
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[*] Dr. Saber Azam is a former United Nations official and author of Soraya: The Other Princess, Hell’s Mouth: A Journey to the Heart of West African Jungles, and many articles on the Afghanistan situation and the need to reform the United Nations[https://www.saberazam.com].He presents the perspective of an Afghan who has closely followed developments in Afghanistan since 1978.
